Practical sheetSheet no. 27 min read

Implicit theories of intelligence

Why do some students enjoy a challenge and thrive on failure, while others, just as capable, dread it and fall apart the moment they hit an obstacle?

Two views of intelligence

According to Dweck (2006), there are two ways of perceiving intelligence: the fixed mindset and the growth (incremental) mindset.

Fixed mindset

People with a fixed mindset believe their abilities and intelligence are innate, unchangeable traits. They often avoid challenges for fear that their weaknesses will be exposed.

Growth mindset

Those with a growth mindset are convinced their skills can develop through effort and persistence. They see challenges as opportunities to learn and are not afraid of failure, which they treat as a step towards success.

What the research shows

Study 1Dweck and colleagues (1975)

How you interpret failure changes everything

Dweck and her colleagues showed that the way children interpret their failures plays a decisive role in how they react. Those who attribute failure to a lack of ability often display signs of learned helplessness (Seligman, 1972), a phenomenon in which someone convinced they cannot succeed stops making any effort: that is the fixed mindset. Those who see failure as the result of insufficient effort or the wrong strategy, on the other hand, persist longer and improve their performance: that is the growth mindset.

Study 2Paunesku et al. (2015)

These mindsets are not set in stone

One of Dweck's major contributions was showing that these mindsets can be changed through targeted interventions. She demonstrated, for instance, that changing the way children are praised has a significant impact: praising effort rather than ability leads to an incremental view of intelligence. This approach values work, strategy and persistence, and encourages children to see challenges as chances to learn rather than threats to their self-esteem.

What can you actually do?

Here are five recommendations drawn from Dweck's research, aimed at students who hold a fixed view of intelligence.

Pay attention to how you frame success and failure

Praise should focus on the effort and the learning strategies used rather than on results or innate talent. In the same way, criticism works best when it is constructive and centred on what the student can improve, starting with their method.

Rather than

“You are really smart.”

Prefer

“You worked really hard on this project, well done!”

“Maybe you could try another method to solve this problem.”

Introduce the basics of neuroplasticity

Explain to students that the brain constantly reorganises itself and remains able to progress through practice. Helping them understand that their abilities are not fixed but can grow with effort is a key lever for building a growth mindset.

Create a safe learning environment

Encourage students to take risks and to treat mistakes as opportunities to learn. An environment where failure is analysed and used to make progress, rather than stigmatised, is essential.

Encourage reflection on learning strategies

Help students think about the strategies they use and try new ones when they hit difficulty. This strengthens their sense of control over their learning and makes challenges feel surmountable.

Lead by example

Teachers and parents benefit from adopting a growth mindset themselves. How they react to challenges and setbacks, and how they talk about their own efforts, serves as a model for children.

Context matters as much as the student

Motivational processes are largely internal to the person, but context plays a decisive role. In a study run with a large sample of American students entering high school, Yeager and his colleagues taught students that their intelligence is not fixed and that they can develop their abilities, alongside concrete application exercises. The effects on maths results were significant for students whose teacher also held a growth mindset, but not for those whose teacher leaned towards a fixed mindset, even though students in both groups showed the same enthusiasm for the concept.

Synthesis based on Bong, M., Reeve, J. & Kim, S.-I., Motivation Science, and the work of Yeager et al. (2019, 2020, 2022).

Key takeaways

Applying these recommendations once will not change how a learner sees learning. But Dweck's research shows that applying them consistently over time can foster a growth view of intelligence, and open the way to stronger motivation, greater resilience and lasting academic success.

References

Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(4), 674-685.
Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Random House.
Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., Romero, C., Smith, E. N., Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2015). Mind-set interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underachievement. Psychological Science, 26, 784-793.
Seligman, M. E. (1972). Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine, 23(1), 407-412.
Bong, M., Reeve, J., & Kim, S.-I. (Eds.). Motivation Science. Oxford University Press.

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